Fotios Lytras, Georgios Psakis, Ruben Gatt et al. · Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies · 2024
Pulsed electric field (PEF) is a food processing technology based on the phenomenon of electroporation for the inactivation of microorganisms with main advantage the minimal effect on the quality (nutritional, functional, and sensorial) characteristics of the food products. Despite the plethora of research literature on PEF-processed food safety, PEF's industrial application as an alternative of classical pasteurization is limited and mainly at industrial level is focused on high acid-liquid food products. Thus, the thorough assessment of the antimicrobial efficiency of PEF, coupled with the meticulous identification of key microbial resistance mechanisms is scientifically imperative. These efforts are essential for refining the process and exploring potential enhancements through synergistic integration and combination with other methods or/and hurdles. On this basis this manuscript aims to critically review and summarise: a) the antimicrobial mechanism of action, b) the microbial inactivation efficiency, and c) the effect of PEF at a microbial genomic/transcriptomic level. Evaluating the effectiveness of inactivation and understanding the underlying resistance mechanisms can help on strategies to optimize PEF-mediated decontamination practices, and thereby enhancing the overall process efficiency.
Cited by 33Open access
Bai‐Lin Qin, Usha R. Pothakamury, Gustavo V. Barbosa‐Cánovas et al. · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · 1996
Processing foods with high-intensity pulsed electric fields (PEF) is a new technology to inactivate microorganisms and enzymes with only a small increase in food temperature. The appearance and quality of fresh foods are not altered by the application of PEF, while microbial inactivation is caused by irreversible pore formation and destruction of the semipermeable barrier of the cell membrane. High-intensity PEF provides an excellent alternative to conventional thermal methods, where the inactivation of the microorganisms implies the loss of valuable nutrients and sensory attributes. This article presents recent advances in the PEF technology, including microbial and enzyme inactivation, generation of pulsed high voltage, processing chambers, and batch and continuous systems, as well as the theory and its application to food pasteurization. PEF technology has the potential to improve economical and efficient use of energy, as well as provide consumers with minimally processed, microbiologically safe, nutritious and freshlike food products.
Cited by 163
Melina Kitsiou, Lisa Purk, Christina Ioannou et al. · International Journal of Food Microbiology · 2023
The demand for products that are minimally processed and produced in a sustainable way, without the use of chemical preservatives or antibiotics have increased over the last years. Novel non-thermal technologies such as cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) and natural antimicrobials such as grape seed extract (GSE) are attractive alternatives to conventional food decontamination methods as they can meet the above demands. The aim of this study was to investigate the microbial inactivation potential of GSE, CAP (in this case, a remote air plasma with an ozone-dominated RONS output) and their combination against L. monocytogenes on five different 3D in vitro models of varying rheological, structural, and biochemical composition. More specifically, we studied the microbial dynamics, as affected by 1 % (w/v) GSE, CAP or their combination, in three monophasic Xanthan Gum (XG) based 3D models of relatively low viscosity (1.5 %, 2.5 % and 5 % w/v XG) and in a biphasic XG/Whey Protein (WPI) and a triphasic XG/WPI/fat model. A significant microbial inactivation (comparable to liquid broth) was achieved in presence of GSE on the surface of all monophasic models regardless of their viscosity. In contrast, the GSE antimicrobial effect was diminished in the multiphasic systems, resulting to only a slight disturbance of the microbial growth. In contrast, CAP showed better antimicrobial potential on the surface of the complex multiphasic models as compared to the monophasic models. When combined, in a hurdle approach, GSE/CAP showed promising microbial inactivation potential in all our 3D models, but less microbial inactivation in the structurally and biochemically complex multiphasic models, with respect to the monophasic models. The level of inactivation also depended on the duration of the exposure to GSE. Our results contribute towards understanding the antimicrobial efficacy of GSE, CAP and their combination as affected by robustly controlled changes of rheological and structural properties and of the biochemical composition of the environment in which bacteria grow. Therefore, our results contribute to the development of sustainable food safety strategies.
Cited by 13Open access
Katherine M. Costello · Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) · 2020
Minimal food processing methods, e.g. cold atmospheric plasma (CAP), ultrasound and the use of natural antimicrobials, are of interest to replace traditional decontamination techniques, as they are milder and thus maintain “fresh-like” food characteristics. Synergistically combining these techniques can increase the inactivation efficiency by acting as a hurdle for microbial growth. However, the efficacy and mechanism of action of combined treatments remains unclear, potentially leading instead to stress adaptation, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) development and/or post-treatment bacterial survival. Natural microflora present in foods could also present a challenge to microbial growth. Most studies on the inactivation of food-related pathogens by these novel processing methods are conducted in liquid broths, or in/on specific food products. However, many foods are solid(like) e.g. soft cheeses, meats, and studies in real foods are informative only for the product studied. Food structure can impact the non-thermal processing efficacy, and the diffusion/efficacy of natural antimicrobials. This thesis presents, for the first time, a fundamental study on microbial inactivation by natural antimicrobials, ultrasound and/or CAP in structured food model systems of controlled rheological composition and complexity. In this thesis, viscoelastic food models of various compositions and (micro)structural characteristics are developed and characterised. Significant structural effects are identified on a microscopic scale, i.e. the system viscosity and growth morphology (surface/immersed/planktonic) affect Listeria colony size and growth location/distribution. Selective surface growth on the protein phase of a complex biphasic protein-polysaccharide model system is observed for the first time. Furthermore, the efficacy of combined novel processing technologies is shown to depend on the microbial species, the system viscosity, the growth morphology (surface/immersed/planktonic), and the order in which treatments are applied. This work sheds light on the combined efficacy of novel processing techniques for the inactivation of Listeria in structured food models, highlighting the importance of accounting for structural effects when designing inactivation processes for the food industry.
Cited by 0Open access
Sencer Buzrul · World s Poultry Science Journal · 2021
SUMMARYHigh hydrostatic pressure (HHP) treatment at the pressure and temperature range of 300–450 MPa and 0–50°C for up to 30 min can be used successfully to inactivate several bacteria in liquid whole egg (LWE). On the other hand, to avoid egg protein coagulation, pressure levels ≤ 300 MPa and temperature levels ≤ 20°C should be selected and holding times ≤ 5 min are desirable for commercial HHP application. However, these conditions are not suitable for pasteurising LWE. Therefore, antimicrobial agents such as nisin, in combination with HHP or successive use of HHP with heat or other non-thermal methods such as pulsed electric field or ultrasound have been tried for maximum microbial inactivation with minimum changes in physical, chemical and functional properties of LWE. This review compiles the studies on HHP and LWE. While microbial inactivation by HHP and inactivation kinetics is the main focus, the impact of HHP on functional properties of LWE is also discussed.
Cited by 5
O McQuestin (15974246), Thomas McMeekin (14744047), Thomas Ross (14748334) · Figshare · 2024
Aims: To investigate the influence of suspension media on the survival of Escherichia coli M23 exposed to nonthermal, lethal stresses. Methods and Results: Populations of E. coli M23 suspended in minimal medium (MM) or in different nutrient-rich broths were exposed to water activity 0.90 and/or pH 3.5 and inactivation was determined by culture-based enumeration. In response to the osmotic or acid challenges, E. coli M23 displayed enhanced survival in MM rather than in complex broth. That trend was reversed when populations were exposed to low water activity in combination with low pH. Comparison of microbial survival in three complex media indicated that even relatively small differences in composition influenced inactivation. In most media the combination of lethal stresses resulted in a synergism, which enhanced bacterial inactivation; however, an exception (tryptone soya broth) was observed. Conclusions: The suspension medium strongly influences the inactivation of E. coli M23 by osmotic and/or acid stresses. This should be considered when comparing studies of microbial survival that use different media and when broth-derived data are intended to represent specific environments (e.g. food matrices). Significance and Impact of the Study: The specific effects of synthetic media need to be appreciated when studying bacterial inactivation in conditions relevant to food-manufacturing regimes. © 2006 The Authors.
Cited by 0Open access
O McQuestin (15974246), Thomas McMeekin (14744047), Thomas Ross (14748334) · Figshare · 2006
Aims: To investigate the influence of suspension media on the survival of Escherichia coli M23 exposed to nonthermal, lethal stresses. Methods and Results: Populations of E. coli M23 suspended in minimal medium (MM) or in different nutrient-rich broths were exposed to water activity 0.90 and/or pH 3.5 and inactivation was determined by culture-based enumeration. In response to the osmotic or acid challenges, E. coli M23 displayed enhanced survival in MM rather than in complex broth. That trend was reversed when populations were exposed to low water activity in combination with low pH. Comparison of microbial survival in three complex media indicated that even relatively small differences in composition influenced inactivation. In most media the combination of lethal stresses resulted in a synergism, which enhanced bacterial inactivation; however, an exception (tryptone soya broth) was observed. Conclusions: The suspension medium strongly influences the inactivation of E. coli M23 by osmotic and/or acid stresses. This should be considered when comparing studies of microbial survival that use different media and when broth-derived data are intended to represent specific environments (e.g. food matrices). Significance and Impact of the Study: The specific effects of synthetic media need to be appreciated when studying bacterial inactivation in conditions relevant to food-manufacturing regimes. © 2006 The Authors.
Cited by 0Open access
Qijun Wang, Yifei Li, Da‐Wen Sun et al. · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · 2018
Improvements in living standards result in a growing demand for food with high quality attributes including freshness, nutrition and safety. However, current industrial processing methods rely on traditional thermal and chemical methods, such as sterilization and solvent extraction, which could induce negative effects on food quality and safety. The electric fields (EFs) involving pulsed electric fields (PEFs) and high voltage electric fields (HVEFs) have been studied and developed for assisting and enhancing various food processes. In this review, the principles and applications of pulsed and high voltage electric fields are described in details for a range of food processes, including microbial inactivation, component extraction, and winemaking, thawing and drying, freezing and enzymatic inactivation. Moreover, the advantages and limitations of electric field related technologies are discussed to foresee future developments in the food industry. This review demonstrates that electric field technology has a great potential to enhance food processing by supplementing or replacing the conventional methods employed in different food manufacturing processes. Successful industrial applications of electric field treatments have been achieved in some areas such as microbial inactivation and extraction. However, investigations of HVEFs are still in an early stage and translating the technology into industrial applications need further research efforts.
Cited by 133
Emre Hastaoğlu, Özlem Pelin Can, Ayşe Sena Özmen · Turkish Journal of Agriculture - Food Science and Technology · 2020
Pulsed UV light application has been a method used frequently in ensuring food safety recently. UV treatment is used in many areas including the food industry through UV treatment and high inactivation power. Pulsed UV light, which is an effective microbial inactivation method that takes place in a shorter time in solid and liquid foods, as it is accepted as an alternative to continuous UV light application, is a promising alternative to both chemical and thermal decontamination methods in the food industry. In this study, pulsed UV light was applied on ready-to-consumption packaged turkey salami samples. In order to ensure food safety and reduce consumer anxiety, the effect of pulsed UV light application of different time and distance on turkey salami slices contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes in equal thickness in order to use UV light was investigated. The effect of pulsed UV application on the microbial inactivation efficiency of the salami surface and the quality of the salami were evaluated. In pulsed UV light system, 3 different distances of quartz glass to samples will be 5-8-13 cm and sliced salami in 3 different periods of 15-30-60 sec. The results of the study showed that pulsed UV light method could be used effectively in inactivation against L. monocytogenes on the salami surface as an alternative to thermal and chemical methods. It was determined that L. monocytogenes inactivation increased as the distance to the quartz lamp decreased and the application time and total energy dose increased. The highest inactivation was obtained after 5 cm 60 sec pulsed UV light treatment.
Cited by 1Open access
Martin Cole, T.A. Roberts · 2001
This chapter reviews ohmic heating in relation to mechanisms and kinetics contributing to microbial death. Interest in rapid methods of heating and nonthermal microbial inactivation resulted in revived attention to electrical and electromagnetic treatments in the 1980s. Ohmic or electrical resistance heating, induction heating, microwave heating, radio-frequency heating, pulsed electric field, electric arc discharge, and oscillating magnetic field treatments are some of the technologies investigated for microbial inactivation. Ohmic or electrical resistance heating involves an application of a low-voltage alternating current to a continuously flowing food product. Ohmic heating has potential applications for processing of liquid-particle mixtures, highly viscous, and heat-sensitive food products. Ohmic heating could also produce better quality highly viscous and heat-sensitive food products than conventional heating for the same reason of internal heat generation. B. E. Horrall reported that the temperature required to kill Escherichia coli and Microbacterium tuberculosis using the electropure process was lower compared to conventional heating.
Cited by 36
Mary Garvey, Nikhil Thokala, Neil J. Rowan · Water Environment Research · 2014
Research into alternative methods of disinfecting water and wastewater has proven necessary due to the emergence of chlorine-resistant organisms and the disinfection byproducts associated with chlorine use. The use of UV light to inactivate microbial species has proven effective, however; standard UV lamps have proven to be less effective in their ability to inactivate parasites and bacterial endospores in water treatment settings. Pulsed UV (PUV) light may potentially provide a novel alternative to water and wastewater disinfection. Research outlined in this study assesses the potential of a novel PUV system for the rapid and reproducible inactivation of a range of test species including Bacillus endospores. In comparison to standard low-pressure (LP) UV lamps, this PUV system provided significantly higher levels of inactivation for all test species. Furthermore, there was a remarkable decrease in time needed to obtain significant inactivation rates following treatment with PUV compared to LP-UV. With the PUV system, a 70-second treatment time (7.65 μJ/cm2) resulted in similar inactivation rates of Bacillus endospores to that of the LP-UV inactivation of their vegetative counterpart. Also, at PUV doses exceeding 4.32 J/cm2, there was not a significant difference in the PUV inactivation of Bacillus endospores in the absence or presence of 10 ppm organic matter. However, the presence of organic matter resulted in a significant reduction in microbial inactivation for all treatment doses using the LP-UV system. The findings of this study suggest that PUV technology may provide a rapid effective method for the disinfection of water and wastewater.
Cited by 15
Faina Nakonechny, Marina Nisnevitch · Advanced Functional Materials · 2021
Abstract Growing resistance of microorganisms to antibiotics due to their widespread use has led to multiple bacterial infections posing a serious threat to health and human life. Low‐frequency ultrasound is one of physical methods for inactivation of pathogenic microbial cells. Application of ultrasound is safe, demonstrates good tissue penetration without significant attenuation of energy, and does not induce microbial resistance. Bactericidal effect of ultrasound is based on acoustic cavitation—the growth and collapse of microbubbles in a liquid medium, resulting in shock waves, shear forces, and microjets which cause irreversible damage and inactivation of microorganisms. The present review combines and analyzes literature data on in vitro and in vivo studies and summarizes works demonstrating the ability of ultrasound, alone or in combination with other methods, to combat pathogenic microorganisms. The results of various studies presented in this review show that low‐frequency ultrasound has a noticeable antimicrobial effect on planktonic cells of microorganisms and biofilms. Ultrasound synergistically enhances the effectiveness of other antibacterial agents and activates molecules called sonosensitizers, resulting in the formation of compounds toxic to microbial cells. Ultrasound can also promote local release of antimicrobial drugs from liposomes, as well as from medical implants.
Cited by 51
Eskindir Endalew Tadesse, Piotr Kulawik, Andrzej Szymkowiak et al. · Food and Bioproducts Processing · 2024
Produced or processed foods are subjects to natural spoilage and contamination, commonly by microorganisms. This occurs along the food supply chain, which results in high levels of food waste and compromised consumer safety. The use of light-emitting diode technologies, a novel non-thermal surface disinfection method, can be used in order to reduce microbial activity and improve shelf-life of the product. This review provides an extensive list of UV-A and blue LED applications on possible microbial inactivation and plant defense mechanisms, affecting quality and shelf-life extension of various food products. In addition, the benefits, engineering aspects of LED reactors for treating liquid foods and associated problems of this technology are summarized. This innovative food surface decontamination technology, with or without exogenous photosensitizers, can be used by food processing industries due to maintaining sensory and nutritional properties while exhibiting antibacterial inactivation. Further research is needed to fully realize their potential and to investigate whether the combined or hurdle technology affects antibacterial efficacy or food quality changes. In addition, an optimized and improved LED illumination system will be developed and applied extensively in the food industry by determining the possible factors needed to increase microbial inactivation rate, maintain quality and safety of food products. • UV-A and blue LED can be used for microbial inactivation and preservation of food products. • UV-A and blue LED irradiation has been successfully applied on various food products • Technology is environmentally friendly compared to traditional methods. • Irradiation parameters need to be established to obtain the expected antimicrobial effect. • Need for further research on hurdle technology to enhance antibacterial efficacy and maintain food product quality.
Cited by 4Open access
Leen Baert · 2013
Abstract: Heating, high hydrostatic pressure processing and irradiation are preservation methods that can be used to establish microbial inactivation. The efficacy of these techniques to inactivate foodborne viruses is discussed in this chapter. Cultivable viral strains and representative surrogate viruses generally used to estimate the behavior of their related human-infecting strains are summarized and their appropriateness discussed.
Cited by 0
Zhang, Steve, Ahamed, Firnaaz, Song, Hyun-Seob · Insecta mundi · 2022
Prevention of the growth of harmful microorganisms in food products is an important requirement for ensuring food safety and quality. Mathematical models to predict the quantitative changes in microbial populations in food to the variations of environmental conditions are useful tools in this regard. Current approaches that use empirical formulation generate arbitrary forms of model equations, impeding systematic analysis towards identifying key factors governing microbial growth and inactivation in food. To address this challenge, we present a data-driven modeling pipeline that enables automatic discovery of model equations (through parsimonious selection of relevant terms in a pre-built library) without having to assume specific functional forms of equations a priori. Through case studies using literature data, we showed how one can systematically build and analyze microbial inactivation models using the pipeline to predict the changes in D-value (i.e., the time taken to reduce microbial population to 10% of the initial level) as a function of given input variables. We used Akaike information criterion to avoid overfitting without hurting model accuracy. The final model was integrated with global sensitivity analysis to evaluate the impacts of individual factors on target variables. We highlight that, besides enhanced performance in data fit, the ability to generate models of varying complexity by accounting for a trade-off between accuracy and interpretability is a unique feature with our approach, not shared by empirical methods. Due to its generality, the pipeline presented in this work is readily applicable to many other related non-linear systems without being limited to microbial inactivation datasets
Cited by 0
E.A. Pozhidaeva, E.S. Popov, Y.A. Dymovskikh et al. · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · 2025
Microbiological production of polysaccharides has undeniable advantages over traditional methods, since it provides an environmentally friendly process for producing functional food. In order to develop methods for modulating and optimizing the synthesis of moisture-binding metabolites of polysaccharide nature, a study of the activity of exopolysaccharide production by a consortium of probiotic microorganisms (Streptococcus thermophiles, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium breve, Bifidobacterium longum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus fermentum. Lactobacillus plantarum) under various thermal exposure conditions. An analysis of the effect of temperature inactivation modes (higher and lower values) was carried out, as well as an analysis of the effect of the duration of inactivation of probiotics. The initial concentrations of microorganisms in the probiotic consortium were at least 109 CFU/ml. On the basis of experimental data, a temperature range from 92 to 120 °C and its corresponding endothermic effects were established. The obtained data make it possible to state the presence of additional binding of moisture by microbial polysaccharides. At the end of the thermal inactivation process, the weight of the test samples was 13,65 % and 14,84 %, of the control sample - 12.36 %. The mass fraction of moisture removed in the test samples was 9,48 % and 11,39 %, in the control sample – 6,92 %, which confirms the activation of the production of microbial metabolites. The maximum activity of the synthesis of moisture-binding metabolites was noted with the following parameters of inactivation modes: temperature 75-2 °C; hold for 50 min followed by cooling to 4-2 оС.
Cited by 0
David Calderón-Franco, Qingnan Lin, Mark C.M. van Loosdrecht et al. · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · 2019
Abstract The dissemination of DNA and xenogenic elements across waterways is under scientific and public spotlight due to new gene-editing tools, such as do-it-yourself (DIY) CRISPR-Cas kits. Over decades, prevention of spread of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), antimicrobial resistances (AMR), and pathogens from transgenic systems has focused on microbial inactivation. However, sterilization methods have not been assessed for DNA release and integrity. Here, we investigated the fate of intracellular DNA from cultures of model prokaryotic ( Escherichia coli ) and eukaryotic ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) cells, commonly used as microbial hosts for genetic modifications, such as in white biotechnology. DNA release was tracked during exposure of these cultures to conventional sterilization methods. Autoclaving, disinfection with glutaraldehyde, and microwaving are used to inactivate broths, healthcare equipment, and GMOs produced at kitchen table. The results show that current sterilization methods are effective on microorganism inactivation but do not safeguard an aqueous residue exempt of biologically reusable xenogenic material, being regular autoclaving the most severe DNA-affecting method. Reappraisal of sterilization methods is required along with risk assessment on the emission of DNA fragments in urban systems and nature. Graphical abstract
Cited by 5Open access
Екатерина Пожидаева, Е. С. Попов, Y. A. Dymovskikh et al. · BIO Web of Conferences · 2025
Microbiological production of polysaccharides has undeniable advantages over traditional methods, since it provides an environmentally friendly process for producing functional food. In order to develop methods for modulating and optimizing the synthesis of moisture-binding metabolites of polysaccharide nature, a study of the activity of exopolysaccharide production by a consortium of probiotic microorganisms (Streptococcus thermophiles, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium breve, Bifidobacterium longum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus fermentum. Lactobacillus plantarum) under various thermal exposure conditions. An analysis of the effect of temperature inactivation modes (higher and lower values) was carried out, as well as an analysis of the effect of the duration of inactivation of probiotics. The initial concentrations of microorganisms in the probiotic consortium were at least 109 CFU/ml. On the basis of experimental data, a temperature range from 92 to 120 °C and its corresponding endothermic effects were established. The obtained data make it possible to state the presence of additional binding of moisture by microbial polysaccharides. At the end of the thermal inactivation process, the weight of the test samples was 13,65 % and 14,84 %, of the control sample - 12.36 %. The mass fraction of moisture removed in the test samples was 9,48 % and 11,39 %, in the control sample – 6,92 %, which confirms the activation of the production of microbial metabolites. The maximum activity of the synthesis of moisture-binding metabolites was noted with the following parameters of inactivation modes: temperature 75-2 °C; hold for 50 min followed by cooling to 4-2 оС.
Cited by 0Open access
Yiming Zhao, María de Alba, Da‐Wen Sun et al. · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · 2018
Thermal treatment is a traditional method for food processing, which can kill microorganisms but also lead to physicochemical and sensory quality damage, especially to temperature-sensitive foods. Nowadays consumers' increasing interest in microbial safety products with premium appearance, flavor, great nutritional value and extended shelf-life has promoted the development of emerging non-thermal food processing technologies as alternative or substitution to traditional thermal methods. Fish is an important and world-favored food but has a short shelf-life due to its extremely perishable characteristic, and the microbial spoilage and oxidative process happen rapidly just from the moment of capture, making it dependent heavily on post-harvest preservation. The applications of novel non-thermal food processing technologies, including high pressure processing (HPP), ultrasound (US), pulsed electric fields (PEF), pulsed light (PL), cold plasma (CP) and ozone can extend the shelf-life by microbial inactivation and also keep good sensory quality attributes of fish, which is of high interest for the fish industry. This review presents the principles, developments of emerging non-thermal food processing technologies, and also their applications in fish industry, with the main focus on microbial inactivation and sensory quality. The promising results showed great potential to keep microbial safety while maintaining organoleptic attributes of fish products. What's more, the strengths and weaknesses of these technologies are also discussed. The combination of different food processing technologies or with advanced packaging methods can improve antimicrobial efficacy while not significantly affect other quality properties under optimized treatment.
Cited by 176
Smeets, P. (author) · Research Repository (Delft University of Technology) · 2008
Samenvatting vii 1. Introduction and goal of the study 1 2. A stochastic pathogen reduction model for full-scale treatment 23 3. How can the UK statutory Cryptosporidium monitoring be used for quantitative risk assessment of Cryptosporidium in drinking water?45 4. Inactivation of Escherichia coli by ozone under bench-scale plug flow and full-scale hydraulic conditions 67 5. Improved methods for modelling drinking water treatment in quantitative microbial risk assessment; a case study of Campylobacter reduction by filtration and ozonation 85 6.On the variability and uncertainty in quantitative microbial risk assessment of drinking water 7. Practical applications of quantitative microbial risk assessment for water safety plans 8.
Cited by 0Open access