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Biasing

Kluwer Academic Publishers eBooks · 2005

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Biasing

2004

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Biasing

Randell W. Rhea · Institution of Engineering and Technology eBooks · 1995

A complete and rigorous description of biasing techniques, including all temperature and leakage effects, for bipolar, JFET, dual-gate FET, and hybrid devices, is beyond the scope of this chapter. Except in rare applications, such as calibrated output-level oscillators, the bias schemes given here provide a more than adequate degree of bias point definition and stability. An active bipolar bias network is given as the final bias example. Resorting to even this modest level of bias network complexity is seldom required.

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Geometric sums, size biasing and zero biasing

Qingwei Liu, Aihua Xia · Electronic Communications in Probability · 2022

The geometric sum plays a significant role in risk theory and reliability theory [Kalashnikov (1997)] and a prototypical example of the geometric sum is Rényi’s theorem [Rényi (1956)] saying a sequence of suitably parameterised geometric sums converges to the exponential distribution. There is extensive study of the accuracy of exponential distribution approximation to the geometric sum [Sugakova (1995), Kalashnikov (1997), Peköz & Röllin (2011)] but there is little study on its natural counterpart of gamma distribution approximation to negative binomial sums. In this note, we show that a nonnegative random variable follows a gamma distribution if and only if its size biasing equals its zero biasing. We combine this characterisation with Stein’s method to establish simple bounds for gamma distribution approximation to the sum of nonnegative independent random variables, a class of compound Poisson distributions and the negative binomial sum of random variables.

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Transistor Biasing

Robert Sobot · 2020

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De-biasing

G. Li Causi, S. Antoniucci, E. Tatulli · 2013

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Biasing Brands

Sheff, Jeremy N. · eYLS (Yale Law School) · 2011

The dominant search-costs model of trademark law posits that consumers choose products to satisfy their preferences by analytically mapping those preferences to product information that trademarks efficiently provide. This Article tests these descriptive claims against empirical and theoretical research in marketing and consumer psychology, particularly the concept of "brand equity": the value to a firm or its customers of a brand and of the firm's efforts to build and maintain that brand. Internally complex brand equity models, juxtaposed with empirical findings in related psychology and marketing research, challenge the descriptive accuracy of the search-costs model. In particular, branding efforts can influence consumer decision-making not only by informing and persuading consumers, but also by altering the way consumers evaluate product information and consumption experiences. In a word, branding can bias consumers. The phenomenon of brand bias suggests that the search-costs model is incomplete and that trademark protection can only reliably promote economic efficiency in a legal environment where complementary regulations, such as those prevalent in food and drug law, mitigate the opportunities for producers to extract rents by manipulating consumer psychology. The Article concludes by situating trademark law in this broader web of consumer protection law.

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Biasing AI?

Jordi Vallverdú · BioNanoScience · 2020

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Biasing Brands

Sheff, Jeremy N. · eYLS (Yale Law School) · 2011

The dominant search-costs model of trademark law posits that consumers choose products to satisfy their preferences by analytically mapping those preferences to product information that trademarks efficiently provide. This Article tests these descriptive claims against empirical and theoretical research in marketing and consumer psychology, particularly the concept of "brand equity": the value to a firm or its customers of a brand and of the firm's efforts to build and maintain that brand. Internally complex brand equity models, juxtaposed with empirical findings in related psychology and marketing research, challenge the descriptive accuracy of the search-costs model. In particular, branding efforts can influence consumer decision-making not only by informing and persuading consumers, but also by altering the way consumers evaluate product information and consumption experiences. In a word, branding can bias consumers. The phenomenon of brand bias suggests that the search-costs model is incomplete and that trademark protection can only reliably promote economic efficiency in a legal environment where complementary regulations, such as those prevalent in food and drug law, mitigate the opportunities for producers to extract rents by manipulating consumer psychology. The Article concludes by situating trademark law in this broader web of consumer protection law.

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Biasing Brands

Sheff, Jeremy N. · eYLS (Yale Law School) · 2011

The dominant search-costs model of trademark law posits that consumers choose products to satisfy their preferences by analytically mapping those preferences to product information that trademarks efficiently provide. This Article tests these descriptive claims against empirical and theoretical research in marketing and consumer psychology, particularly the concept of "brand equity": the value to a firm or its customers of a brand and of the firm's efforts to build and maintain that brand.\nInternally complex brand equity models, juxtaposed with empirical findings in related psychology and marketing research, challenge the descriptive accuracy of the search-costs model. In particular, branding efforts can influence consumer decision-making not only by informing and persuading consumers, but also by altering the way consumers evaluate product information and consumption experiences. In a word, branding can bias consumers. The phenomenon of brand bias suggests that the search-costs model is incomplete and that trademark protection can only reliably promote economic efficiency in a legal environment where complementary regulations, such as those prevalent in food and drug law, mitigate the opportunities for producers to extract rents by manipulating consumer psychology. The Article concludes by situating trademark law in this broader web of consumer protection law.

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biasing, adj.

Oxford University Press eBooks · 2023

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biasing, n.

Oxford University Press eBooks · 2023

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Biasing Plasmonic Nanocavities

Dean Kos · Apollo (University of Cambridge) · 2019

Molecular electronics promises a new generation of ultralow-energy information technologies, based around functional molecular junctions where two electrodes are bridged by just a few molecules. How molecules exactly behave in a real junction however is still not well understood, since interactions with the electrode materials and neighbouring molecules at the nanoscale is difficult to model and probe experimentally. Many studies so far have characterised in detail the electrical response of molecular junctions by statistical analysis of many repeated measurements, but without monitoring in real time the behaviour of individual devices. The main difficulty of in situ measurements is the absence of characterisation tools that can provide direct access to the dynamics of nm-sized junctions during device operation. This thesis explores two novel approaches used to create optically accessible nanoscale junctions. One method is based on graphene electrodes, used to fabricate extended junctions with a metal oxide spacer. These graphene junctions are found to behave as memristive devices, where a solid state redox reaction releases gas from the oxide spacer that remains trapped under the graphene, resulting in an actuating mechanism. Displacement of the surface layers can be optically tracked in real time using metallic nanoparticles deposited on the sample, whose plasmonic coupling with the bottom electrode is modulated by the actuation mechanism. The second method used to construct nanoscale junctions is more appropriate for molecular junctions, and is based on electrical contacting of individual metallic nanoparticles with a conductive transparent cantilever. Nanoparticles are deposited on a molecular monolayer and represent one electrode of a molecular junction, and at the same time allow to optically probe the junction itself by enabling plasmonic confinement of light to volumes <100nm$^3$. Darkfield and Raman spectroscopy are performed on single nanoparticle junctions in real time while voltage is applied, and a modulation of the optical response with voltage is observed, revealing that molecules undergo conformational changes during device operation.

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Resilient biasing device

Afazov, S, Mansfield, N, Goy, D et al. · Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) · 2025

Unitary resilient biasing spring having two inwardly curving curls 4, 8 from a central point 3. The two curls 4, 8 directly or indirectly connect or contact each other at 12. Curls may be spirals. Two curls may be mirror symmetrical, one clockwise, the other anti-clockwise. The spring may be wire, tube, or strip. Beyond the contact point 12, the two curls may include free ends 6, 10. The curls are planar parallel on the same plane. Spring may include piezoelectric actuator 26 and/or sensor. Additional connector 84 (fig 6) may connect the free ends. The spring may extend in two planes.

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Transistor Biasing Circuits

George Domingo · 2020

This chapter explains how we use transistors, how we bias them, so they generate working and useful circuits, and how we stabilize them as the temperature, currents, and applications vary. There are several ways we can bias a transistor: fixed base bias, collector feedback bias, and emitter feedback bias. The chapter focuses on the basic operation of a single transistor and discusses the operational amplifier (OpAmp), a “single component”, which is more stable and easier to insert in a circuit without much need for design and calculations. An ideal OpAmp can have the following characteristics: infinite input resistance, infinite gain, and zero output resistance. By isolating or shorting portions of the circuit using capacitors, sinusoidal voltages can be amplified without disturbing the DC conditions that make the transistor functional and stable.

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Vertical Biasing Techniques

John C. Mallinson · Elsevier eBooks · 2002

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Learning by biasing

G. Hailu, Gerald Sommer · 2002

In the quest for machines that are able to learn, reinforcement learning (RL) is found to be an appealing learning methodology. A known problem in this learning method, however is that it takes too long before the robot learns to associate suitable situation-action pairs. Due to this problem, RL has remained applicable only to simple tasks and discrete environment. To accelerate the learning process to a level required by real robot tasks, the traditional learning architecture has to be modified. We propose a modified reinforcement based robot skill acquisition and adaptation architecture. The architecture has two components: a bias and a learning components. The bias component imparts to the learner coarse a priori knowledge about the task. Subsequently, the learner refines the acquired actions through reinforcement learning. We have validated the architecture and the learning algorithm on a simulated TRC mobile robot for a goal reaching task.

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De-biasing Democracy

John O. McGinnis · Princeton University Press eBooks · 2012

This chapter discusses how democracy can adopt reforms, including those based on new information technology, to combat bias more effectively. These include reinforcing majority rule and representation, earmarks, term limits, and education reform. It argues that society has now accumulated knowledge about more subtle yet pervasive biases—from biased assimilation, to knowledge falsification, to status quo bias. We should use this developing social knowledge to create better mechanisms of constraint against bias and thereby make new information about substantive policy more effective for democratic updating. An age of technological acceleration can less afford bias than previous ages, because its speed of social change may make mistakes less easily correctable.

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over-biasing, adj.

Oxford University Press eBooks · 2023

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Biasing CRT guns

Ken Compton · Information Display · 1992

Designers of high-quality displays must make sure that all of the electron guns in all of the CRTs in their displays perform equally despite electron-gun variations within a CRT production run. Indeed, a key element of display design is accommodating these variations. It is easy to fall into the trap of designing systems on the basis of a few samples, which can lead to inadequate circuit design and inconsistent production results. Today's high-resolution designs make it imperative that display and CRT engineers open a meaningful dialog in the early stages of design. Simply using the CRT manufacturer's statement of “typical” operating conditions without optimizing tube performance to the display will inevitably lead to disappointing production results, as will assuming the adequacy of fixed G2 biasing. Reputable CRT manufacturers are not trying to fool their customers. It's just that CRT specification sheets aren't large enough to incorporate all of the variations that might be mandated by the staggering range of real-world application and performance requirements. Realistically, the data contained on a spec sheet can consist of little more than operating parameters, bias limits, and mechanical dimensions. A design engineer will usually find nothing that relates specifically to the performance level he or she might have in mind or to the tradeoffs involved in utilizing a cutoff chart at face value. In between the generalities of the spec sheet and the specifics of a desperate through-the-night meeting with your CRT sales engineer, there are some useful points that can be discussed in a short article — especially if we limit ourselves to unipotential electron guns of the sort typically used in raster-dot alphanumeric monochrome displays [Fig. 1]. To simplify things even further, we'll stick to unipotential guns without limiting apertures. A unipotential electron gun dominates this gun designers view of a CRT. This is the sort of gun typically used in raster-dot alphanumeric monochrome displays. Triode performance characteristics can be presented in relation to significant parameters. VD is the drive voltage, VG1 is the grid #1 bias voltage, VC is the grid #1 voltage for cutoff, IC is the cathode current, and IC/0 is the zero bias or full drive cathode current. The gun's triode section is composed of the cathode (K), control grid #1 (G1), and the preaccelerator or buffer anode (G2). The cathode provides a continuous supply of electrons that form a space charge — a sort of electron “cloud” — in front of the emitter surface. The emitted electrons have a Maxwellian thermal-velocity distribution in each of the axial and radial directions, which limits the spot size that can be attained in any CRT. The purpose of Gl is to prevent the electric field that originates at G2 from penetrating the cathode space. This makes it possible to control the amount of current drawn from the space-charge cloud. For any G2 voltage, there is a minimum negative voltage — the spot-cutoff voltage — that, when applied to G1, produces visual extinction of the undeflected spot. In any CRT, the optimum cathode current can be calculated using one of three possible formulas. Regardless of which one is used, the relationships among the various parameters can be displayed with the same graphic presentation [Fig. 2]. The drive fraction (γ) — the drive voltage Vd divided by the G1 cutoff voltage Vc — is the parameter that most severely affects tube performance in guns without limiting apertures. The radius at the cathode from which current is drawn is roughly proportional to γD, where D is the G1 aperture diameter. Excessive values of γ increase the beam's initial size, as well as its size at the crossover point — Station 2 in Fig. 2 — and thereby increase the aberration in the triode lens system. The aberration is proportional to the third power of the beam diameter for a given gun. (Aberrations also depend on the relationship of the beam diameter to the lens system's inside diameter.) As a result, excessive drive levels are the major cause of deterioration in spot size. Cathode loading — the maximum current density drawn from the cathode's center — is a triode parameter that affects the life of a CRT. For standard barium-oxide cathodes, reasonable values of cathode loading depend on the duty cycle. Traditional text-based applications utilizing pixel-ON characters against a dark background produced duty cycles that seldom exceeded 15%. Today's “black-on-white” applications require the beam to be ON roughly 80% of the time. At 15%, a cathode load of 2 A/cm2 is not excessive; at 80% duty cycle, the loading should be decreased to 0.5 A/cm2. Reference data on cathode loading values indicates that a high-resolution tube with a nominal G1 aperture of 15 mils should not be driven at more than 42 V (regardless of cutoff) to keep loading under 2 A/cm2. As luminance requirements increase and pixel sizes decrease, cathode loading becomes an ever more critical element for electron-gun designers. As a result, designers are investigating nontraditional electron-source materials that allow cathode loading to be increased. The triode section of a typical electron gun has very small design spacings [Fig. 1, inset]. It is subject to process variations and instability-producing thermal effects during warmup. Under these circumstances, CRT designers have an extremely difficult time establishing a narrow range of cutoff for a fixed G2 bias: the range of cutoff is generally as large as the minimum value! A change of just 1 mil in the cathode-to-G1 spacing will produce a change in cutoff of approximately 30%. If cutoff changes from 30 to 60 V, for example, the effect on beam current is dramatic. A drive of 20 V produces 180 μA when the cutoff is 30 V but only 65 μA when the cutoff is 60 V. The appearance of these two spots would differ greatly, and increasing VG2 can bring the beam current back up. The percent change in VG2 required to adjust cutoff is roughly proportional to the desired percent change in cutoff. By setting VG1 at a constant cutoff value in two CRTs out of a production run, both examples would have the same cathode current for a given drive voltage. VG2 would be the variable; both tubes would have similar spot sizes. The cross section of an electron beam varies substantially as the electrons flow through the gun structure of a CRT. [The size of the cross section (y-axis) is exaggerated relative to the distances between electron-gun elements (x-axis).] Designing a tube with a fixed cutoff requires the use of a specific anode voltage for a particular set of triode spacings. This is an unacceptable situation for display designers and for CRT manufacturers. The positive G2 element allows designers to use a range of anode voltages because it acts as an isolation element that buffers the triode from the lens. Using G2 as the variable element permits a constant cutoff on G1, which makes it much easier to achieve uniformity of VDUs. Spot deterioration caused by spherical aberration increases as the beam diameter grows in relation to the focus region's “clear” diameter — the inside diameter of G4. The beam diameter in the lens focus region — G3 to G5 — and in the deflection-yoke area are controlled by the beam angles α1 and α2 [shown in Fig. 3] and other geometric factors. These alpha angles depend on the triode design, G2 and G3 voltages, and the value of the drive fraction γ. The cross section of the beam as illustrated is for visualization only. (The nearly Gaussian density distribution has no definite limits.) As a rule of thumb, the beam diameter should be kept at or below 10% of the clear diameter. The alternatives are to increase the lens diameter or use a smaller beam to improve spot quality. Since customers won't generally relax their luminance requirements, the display designer has few viable alternatives. An off-set beam — one not centered within the lens — will produce the same effect as increased beam diameter. This can be illustrated by applying a small magnet to the Gl area — an old TV technician's trick to improve appearance with a marginal electron gun (or to distort a good one). Extremely precise axial alignment is still not economically feasible for commercial CRT products, although today's electron guns are considerably better than their antecedents. A major cause of beam off-set in the focus area is excessive penetration of the yoke's magnetic field into the region of low beam velocity. The aberrations appear as deflection defocusing because the yoke fields are minimal near the center of deflection and cause little off-set there. A nonuniformity in the off-axis regions of the yoke field tends to superimpose additional deflection distortions. Therefore, using a yoke with wide variations from lot to lot will generally cost more than a better quality yoke over the life of a program. As a rule of thumb, the forward end of the electron gun should not be positioned any closer than about one neck diameter from the back of the yoke. This tends to increase the neck length beyond what packaging engineers feel is desirable for an attractive cabinet appearance. Gun designers generally regard this as a counter-productive limitation. Centering magnets mounted on the yoke frame also contribute to beam aberrations. These magnets should have the minimum magnetic strength needed to center the beam within the yoke field, and the uniformity of the field should be watched closely. Using excessively strong magnets will contribute to spot distortion, particularly in the corners. Removing the centering rings is a quick way to verify if the rings are causing more problems than they are solving. Using the rings as a substitute for dc centering of the video is another way for display designers to create their own production problems. Varying gun parameters affects the beam in different ways. Unfortunately, most of the positive effects are accompanied by negative ones. We mentioned that the beam size in the deflection region affects the degree of deflection defocusing. Geometric deflection defocusing — assuming a spot focused at the tube center and a flat faceplate — is given approximately by where δ(RS) is the spot growth due to deflection defocusing and the other parameters are defined in Fig. 2. λ is a function representing yoke-performance limitations that produce additional spot growth. Since 2Zθ is the beam diameter in the deflection region, defocusing for a fixed tube design is directly proportional to θ. So why not make electron guns with a small θ angle to improve the center-to-corner defocusing characteristics? Tradeoffs. The gains attributed to a decrease in θ are accompanied by increases in the center spot size and a degradation in highlight luminance under otherwise identical drive conditions. Reducing θ at the same drive reduces the peak current density of the writing beam at the screen. For low values of beam density, the Gaussian distribution of the beam at the screen produces a Gaussian light output at the writing line. But phosphors do not typically respond linearly. At elevated current density or voltage, they display a more-or-less flat-topped light output variation across the beam. The inevitable result is an increase in spot size and a decrease in resolution for a given beam current. To recover the luminance lost by reducing θ, CRT designers can consider an increase in cathode loading and/or screen voltage within the limits of the electron-gun structure. Increasing cathode loading — and, consequently, current density at the screen — must be considered in terms of the CRT's life. Changing to higher-capacity cathode systems does not in and of itself imply that the electron beam can be controlled effectively out to the screen. Varying gun parameters produce various effects [Fig. 4]. What appear as positive gains are typically associated with a few negatives. To avoid finding them on your own, utilize the resources of the CRT vendor in the earliest stages of display design. 1

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