Frank R. Ihmig, Stephen G. Shirley, Randall Kirschman et al. · IEEE Pulse · 2013
With few exceptions, electronic components are rated by their manufacturers to -40 °C (sometimes -55 °C). The operation of electronic components, circuits, and systems at much lower temperatures is called cold electronics, cryogenic electronics, low-temperature electronics, or cryoelectronics. Although not all electronics components are usable at low temperatures, electronic devices and circuits have been operated all the way down to a few degrees above absolute zero (0 K, -273 °C).
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Sellmann, P. V. (Paul V.) U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. org., Mellor, Malcolm, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. org., Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (U.S.) · The Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association
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Karim H. Moussa, Shawki Shaaban, Ahmed H. El-Sakka · Wireless Networks · 2022
Abstract The polar code is a unique coding approach that can achieve Shannon's capacity in modern communication systems' discrete memory-less channels with superior reliability, but it is not secure enough under modern attacks for such systems. This study aims to offer a comprehensive secured polar coding scheme that uses a combination of polar coding and the Mersenne-Twister pseudo-random number generator (MT-PRNG) to achieve a super secured encoding. The pre-shared crypto-system cyphering key initiates the starting state of the MT-PRNG as a seed. The randomly generated sequences govern the values of the frozen bits in polarized bit channels and their associated indices. A half-bit-error-rate probability system performance is calculated when the encoding ciphering keys at the receiver differ by a single bit from those utilized at the transmitter. Using calculated numerical analysis, the system is shown to be secure against brute force attacks, Rao-Nam attacks, and polar code reconstruction attacks.
Cited by 7Open access
Fatih Genç, Orhan Gazi · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · 2021
In this paper, we show that encoding operation for the polar codes can be achieved without the employment of the generator matrix, and all the polar code bits can be generated at the same time using a number of tree-encoding structures running in parallel. Since encoding matrix is not used in the implementation of the polar encoders in digital electronic devices, hardware space is saved, and low complexity hardware applications are achieved. Besides, we also proposed a method for the calculation of split channel parameters, such as Bhattacharyya bounds or average-bit-error probabilities of the transmitted bits using a tree-based structure. Moreover, the proposed structure enables to calculate the probability of bit-error values of all the transmitted bits at the same time in a parallel manner and decide the locations of data and frozen bits very rapidly.
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Karim H. Moussa, Ahmed H. El-Sakka · 2024
Enhancing channel capacity in 5G and Future Systems with Polar Codes have proven to be an effective coding technique for achieving channel capacity in 5G and beyond. However, concerns about their security have prompted the de-velopment of an enhanced solution: the encrypted constrained polar code (ECPC) security system. This system leverages polar codes in conjunction with a pre-shared secret keyed to bolster security. The secret key plays a crucial role in generating random values and indices for frozen bits, resulting in a more secure and robust coding scheme. By separating input codeword bits into random indices with low mutual information and fixed ones, the coded sequences exhibit greater randomness, thereby influencing the frozen bit values and indices in the polarized coded bit channels. Simulations presented have demonstrated that the suggested ECPC system outperforms its predecessor, achieving more than double the Bit Error Rate (BER) performance at the same E<inf xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">b</inf>/N<inf xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0</inf>-Testing across different code word lengths, half code rates, and frozen bit restricted ratios consistently showed improved BER performance, underscoring the efficacy of the proposed system. Furthermore, security testing has revealed that a one-bit discrepancy between the decoding encryption key and the encoding key can lead to a significant increase in the receiver's BER probability. With the receiver unable to discern the sent material without the whole 232-bit symmetric encryption key, the ECPC system offers a heightened level of security in communication channels with improved performance.
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Wei Dai, Lei Zhu, Jianxin Ren et al. · Optics Express · 2025
This article proposes a secure transmission method that uses grouped multicarrier modulation, embedding encryption keys directly into the transmitted signal to allow simultaneous key and data transmission. A four-dimensional hyperchaotic system ensures security, while transmission quality is enhanced using a polar coding strategy that demonstrates superior error correction performance compared to conventional FEC schemes. By employing polar code modulation, preallocated frozen bits serve as physical-layer resources for secure key transmission, thereby improving spectral efficiency. Experimental validation over 20 km of standard single-mode fiber (SSMF) demonstrates a stable data rate of 8 Gb/s. Results show that the proposed scheme significantly enhances both transmission performance and security. The system's spectral efficiency has increased by 6.25% and maintaining a zero key error rate throughout the channel, and achieving a key space exceeding 10<sup>150</sup>.
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Hongmei Chi, Yizhi Zhao · 2019
A chaos stream cipher embedded polar coding structure with frozen bits operation scheme is presented in this paper. Several solutions are proposed for solving the remaining problem of former encrypted polar coding scheme for symmetric and degraded wiretap channel. In the proposed structure, a chaos stream cipher is embedded for secure encryption. A solution for long key transmission over the wiretap channel is presented. A multi-block chaining structure is employed for achieving the secure and reliable transmission under the strong security criterion. And a frozen bits operation is constructed with the chaining structure to increase the error probability for unauthorized decoding. And our proposed scheme can also achieve an additional secrecy capacity for the symmetric and degraded wiretap channel.
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T. Nandhini · International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology · 2017
Polar codes have been recently proposed as the first low complexity of error correcting codes for wireless channels that can provably achieve the capacity of symmetric binary-input memory less channels. Here, the bit error rate performance of finite-length polar codes is performed under Successive-Cancellation decoding. In existing ASM controller is used in high radix computation, utilizes high hardware resources that increase implementation complexity with reduced performance. To overcome this by using proposed architecture, the length of polar code N can be reduced from N-1 to N/2-1 from the decoding latency of the code, it can replace high hardware resources in merged processing elements to control the decoding by state transition method results low power consumption. The 8-point polar coder is proposed that can be easily combined to form efficient Npoint polar coder architectures, so that it can achieve parallelism and bit-pipelining techniques result in low power operation and easily expandable architecture with respect to data and/or co-efficient word length. Finally, in this paper the position of frozen bits and architecture of 8-bit SC decoder was analyzed. Our coding scheme also achieves the capacity of the physically degraded channel with better error control performance.
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Evgeny Marshakov, Anna Fominykh, Alexey Frolov · 2022 IEEE International Multi-Conference on Engineering, Computer and Information Sciences (SIBIRCON) · 2022
Machine-type communications with a large number of autonomous devices, small packets, and a lack of centralized coordination are the future of cellular systems. This scenario is typically called massive machine-type communications (mMTC). There are several candidate solutions for this problem that are proposed by the 3GPP standartization committee. In this paper, we continue the investigation of the model proposed by Marshakov et al. in [1]. We propose a method for polar code design for multiple access channels (MAC) by means of dynamic frozen bits. We present an algorithm for polar code design by optimizing the search of dynamic frozen positions based on the properties of the joint successive cancellation decoding in combination with the list decoding method. Series of experiments for single and multi-user cases were conducted and it was shown that obtained configuration of dynamic frozen bits increases the practical performance of polar codes in a multi-user scenario.
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宋 卉迎, Song Huiying, 府川和彦 et al. · Tokyo Tech Research Repository (Tokyo Institute of Technology) · 2021
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Ahmed H. El-Sakka, Shawki Shaaban, Karim H. Moussa · 2019
Polar codes are a talented coding technique with the ability to accomplish the discrete memoryless channel capacity for modern communication systems with high reliability, but it is not secured enough for such systems. A secured system counts on grouping polar codes with secret Mersenne- Twister pseudo-random number generator (MT PRNG) is presented in this paper. The proposed encoder security is deduced from the secret pre-shared initial state of MT PRNG which is considered as the crypto-system ciphering key. The generated sequences are random like and control the frozen bits' values and their indices in the polarized bit channels. When the decoding cipher key at the receiver has one-bit change from the original encoding cipher key, the receiver has an almost 0.5 BER probability. This means that the receiver, in this case, had no clue about the originally sent information data bits without prior knowledge of the utilized 232-bit ciphering key. Moreover, the security of the system can be enhanced by utilizing a pseudo-random number generator (PRBG) with longer seed to increase the system secrecy and decoding obscurity.
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Vera Miloslavskaya · IEEE Access · 2025
This paper focuses on low-complexity design of polar codes with high error-correction capability for 6G networks. We propose a novel frozen set design approach for polar codes with dynamic frozen bits that guarantees the best possible trade-offs between closed-form bounds on successive cancellation (SC) and maximum-likelihood (ML) decoding error probabilities, where the ML bound is the union bound parameterized by the ensemble-averaged weight distribution. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first method to generate Pareto-optimal frozen sets for these dual objectives. The low complexity of generating the frozen set Pareto front stems from our analysis of the bounds. Experimental results show that the resulting polar codes with dynamic frozen bits and near-uniformly distributed frozen bit expressions outperform the state-of-the-art codes under successive cancellation list (SCL) decoding with list sizes ranging from 2 to 16. These results suggest promising applications for next-generation wireless communication systems requiring both high reliability and computational efficiency.
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Jianguo Yuan, Fengguo Zhang, Linfeng Yu et al. · Optoelectronics Letters · 2024
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Yupeng Jiang, Lijun Zhang · 2024
Polar codes in 5G new radio (5G NR) have been extensively investigated as a crucial channel coding technique in the field of channel coding and decoding. In this paper, we leverage the property of frozen bits in polar codes to enhance the successive-cancellation-list (SCL) decoding of polar codes. This enables adaptive adjustment of the list size with minimal additional redundancy. Our novel approach, called Dynamic Adaptive (DA) SCL decoding, exploits the check properties exhibited by certain frozen bits in polar codes to precisely assess the reliability of pre-coding, thus determining whether list decoding is necessary and what size of list is required. Simulation results demonstrate that our method achieves comparable performance to existing decoding techniques with lower computational complexity. As demand grows within the 5G NR ecosystem for efficient and high-performance decoding methods, our DA-SCL decoding presents a promising solution poised to make significant contributions to seamless and reliable data transmission in the next generation (6G) networks.
Cited by 1
Sellmann, P. V. (Paul V.), Brockett, Bruce E., Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (U.S.) · The Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association
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Zhongxiu Feng, Yuan Liu, Shengyu Zhang et al. · IEEE Communications Letters · 2023
In this letter, we propose a polar-coding-assisted blind frame synchronization (BFS) method with the aid of soft information of frozen bits. Specifically, a synchronization metric associated with the probability of correctly estimating the frozen bit sequence is designed. Then, a low-complexity approximation of the synchronization metric is derived and amalgamated with successive cancellation list decoding of polar codes. Finally, the simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method is capable of achieving superior frame synchronization error rate performance over the existing BFS based on low-density parity-check codes.
Cited by 4
Qasim Jan, Zakir Ali, Hafeez Anwar et al. · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · 2025
Successive cancellation list (SCL) decoding for polar codes has the ability to achieve Shannon capacity over the binary discrete memoryless channel. However, a large list size is required to achieve the Shannon capacity limit. Consequently, this paper proposes a novel iterative method for the CA-SCL decoder based on frozen bits to improve the error-correction performance of CA-SCL decoding for polar codes with smaller list sizes. The proposed technique determines the vulnerable channel log-likelihood ratios (LLRs) for frozen bits that degrade the CA-SCL decoding error correction performance and corrects them for the next CA-SCL decoding attempt. We analyze the behavior of wrongly estimated LLRs of frozen bits during CA-SCL decoding and design an attenuation factor set using a greedy algorithm. The proposed technique employs iterative CA-SCL decoding and revises the wrongly estimated frozen bit LLRs using the attenuation factor set during the decoding process. The simulation results show that the proposed technique achieves a block error rate (BLER) performance gain of up to 0.25 compared with the CA-SCL decoder, with a minor increase in computational complexity. Moreover, the attenuation factor set can be adjusted arbitrarily to balance performance and complexity.
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Kensuke Yamaura, Hiroki Itô, Eiji Okamoto et al. · IEICE Communications Express · 2023
Polar codes can achieve arbitrary coding rates by varying the number of frozen bits. However, the large propagation delay in satellite laser communications complicates the adaptive setting of the optimal polar coding rate using bidirectional control signaling. In addition, channel estimation in fading channels requires pilot symbols, resulting in a reduction in rate efficiency. To address these simultaneously, we propose a novel one-way adaptive polar-code transmission scheme that performs both channel and code rate estimations using only frozen bits. Numerical results demonstrate that the proposed scheme produces a higher throughput than existing single-rate transmission schemes.
Cited by 1Open access
Dong Yang, Yinyou Mao, Xingcheng Liu · IET Communications · 2023
Abstract Polar codes have received widespread attention because of their excellent performance. However, although successive cancellation (SC)‐based decoding algorithms have achieved excellent error correction performance, they still encounter large time delays in decoding because a serial decoding structure is employed. At present, a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is used to judge whether the decoding result of a frame is erroneous. To obtain such a result, the decoder has to wait until the end of decoding. In this work, a judgement strategy for error frames using frozen bits is proposed. With the proposed strategy, the recognition of erroneously decoded frames can be achieved based on the error state of the frozen bits in this frame. Accordingly, early termination of decoding can be realized. By using this mechanism, the strategy can also be applied in the SC List algorithm to prune the path. In addition, the SC Flip decoding algorithm can also use the proposed strategy to help find the first error message bit. The experimental results show that at least 85% of the frames decoded erroneously can be recognized by the proposed strategy so that decoding can be terminated in advance and computational resources can be saved.
Cited by 2Open access
Keisuke Asano, Takumi Abe, Kenta Kato et al. · IEICE Transactions on Communications · 2023
In recent years, physical layer security (PLS), which utilizes the inherent randomness of wireless signals to perform encryption at the physical layer, has attracted attention. We propose chaos modulation as a PLS technique. In addition, a method for encryption using a special encoder of polar codes has been proposed (PLS-polar), in which PLS can be easily achieved by encrypting the frozen bits of a polar code. Previously, we proposed a chaos-modulated polar code transmission method that can achieve high-quality and improved-security transmission using frozen bit encryption in polar codes. However, in principle, chaos modulation requires maximum likelihood sequence estimation (MLSE) for demodulation, and a large number of candidates for MLSE causes characteristic degradation in the low signal-to-noise ratio region in chaos polar transmission. To address this problem, in this study, we propose a versatile frozen bit method for polar codes, in which the frozen bits are also used to reduce the number of MLSE candidates for chaos demodulation. The numerical results show that the proposed method shows a performance improvement by 1.7dB at a block error rate of 10-3 with a code length of 512 and a code rate of 0.25 compared with that of conventional methods. We also show that the complexity of demodulation can be reduced to 1/16 of that of the conventional method without degrading computational security. Furthermore, we clarified the effective region of the proposed method when the code length and code rate were varied.
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